Zhu Xi — Chinese philosopher, politician, and writer of the Song dynasty — proposed looking at the words of the songs themselves Credit: Alamy. Like no other text from Chinese antiquity, the Songs were cherished, and hence survived, in two parallel traditions: one of learned commentary and the imperial examination system, the other of poetic memory and allusion.
Remarkably, no ancient source ever shows us the Airs as innocent folk poetry. In that tradition, each line could have multiple meanings. Through poetry, rites and music, Confucian education sought to teach moral subtleties — easily memorised in the form of singing, The Book of Songs helped to lay down rules for behaviour.
Its poetry, as opposed to the Western tradition, was largely anonymous and apparently simple. Yet beneath the surface, the poems are multi-layered. To this day, the Songs — and especially the Airs — are speaking in multiple voices.
In delightful ambiguity, they have survived every attempt to be reduced, and hence diminished, to a single message or meaning. It was always about something else: how can you make them mean something new? A poll of writers and critics, Stories that Shaped the World , was announced in May.
If you would like to comment on this story or anything else you have seen on BBC Culture, head over to our Facebook page or message us on Twitter. Just as The Great Learning emphasized learning, so did the Analects. According to the Analects, the first step in knowing the Way is to devote oneself to learning. In addition to learning, the Analects emphasize the importance of good governance, filial piety, virtue, and ritual.
Read James Legge's English translation of the Analects. Mencius Mencius is a collection of conversations Mencius had with Kongzi. Mencius places a strong emphasis on the responsibility of the emperor to practice good governance through following the Way.
Additionally, Mencius believes that all human beings are inherently good. One of the most popular passages from Mencius notes that all humans instinctively respond with alarm and compassion when we see a child teetering on the edge of a well, suggesting that everyone is innately good and moral. Yet, he notes that not everyone actually rushes to save the child and emphasizes the idea that though we are all born with the seeds of righteousness and goodness, but must learn how to nurture and cultivate those seeds.
Read James Legge's English translation of the Mencius with commentary. The Doctrine of the Mean is attributed to Zisi, Kongzi's grandson, and deals with how to maintain perfect balance and harmony in one's life.
The Doctrine of the Mean focuses on following the Way and acting in accordance with what is right and natural, but acknowledges that people often do not act properly. To rectify the situation, people are encouraged to engage in moral self-cultivation to act properly. In addition, the Doctrine of the Mean emphasizes the fact that the good governance rests with men and that rulers who maintain balance are not only more effective, but also encourage the Way in others.
Charles Muller's translation of the Doctrine of the Mean with commentary. Book of Documents The Book of Documents is a compilation of 58 chapters detailing the events of ancient China.
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